History of South Africa: Political
The electoral success of the National Party (NP) in 1948 ushered in a period where ensuring segregation between the different racial groups became the core of the policies introduced during the years that follow. The Constitution that was adopted during this period was the 1961 Constitution, which deprived all non-white groups of their legal rights, recognised Afrikaans and English as the only two official languages and had a system of parliamentary sovereignty. (2000).
According to South African History Online (n.d.) and Mtholyoke.edu, (n.d.), some of the discriminatory policies that were introduced included:
During the mid-1980s, the apartheid system was increasingly challenged and began to weaken. This resistance came from the international community, as well as from the South African people.
The issue of racial discrimination during apartheid was a source of concern for the United Nations (UN) since 1946. However, little was done as it was thought that apartheid was an internal affair of South Africa, thus it did not come under the scope of the UN. With the Sharpeville massacre in 1960, the international view of apartheid changed and began to criticise South Africa. In 1977, compulsory arms embargoes were imposed and the year 1982 was declared the International Year of Mobilisation for Sanctions against South Africa. Boycotts were also made in various sectors brought not only a negative impact on the economy, but also disrupted everyday life. South Africa was thus increasingly isolated. To alleviate isolation, BJ Vorster, the Prime Minister from 1966-1978, introduced the “outward looking policy”. (South African History Online, n.d.)
Organisations such as the African National Congress (ANC) and Pan Africanist Congress (PAC) were formed against apartheid. They sought to bring about a change through peaceful means like civil disobedience campaigns; however, they turned to armed resistance after the Sharpeville Massacre. Military wings of the ANC and PAC, the MK and Popo were formed respectively which carried out violence and sabotage. With the ban of ANC and PAC in 1960, a student initiated movement, the Black consciousness (BC), started in 1969. These black resistance groups contributed to some of the key events of Apartheid, as discussed in a later section. (Apartheid Museum, 2008).
The increasing resistance towards the system led to the altering of the Constitution in the early 1980s, so as to appease some sectors of the non-white population. The 1983 Constitution allowed limited parliamentary representation (that was dictated by the predominantly white government) for the Indian and Coloured communities. The parliament consisted of three houses:
Some discriminatory policies were repealed during this period, such as the Mixed Marriages Act and the Population Registration Act. Also, in 1990, liberation organisations including the African National Congress (ANC) were unbanned and prisoners were released. Negotiations began between the ANC and NP for a new Constitution and the first democratic elections.
According to South African History Online (n.d.) and Mtholyoke.edu, (n.d.), some of the discriminatory policies that were introduced included:
- The Prohibition of Mixed Marriages Act, Act No 55 of 1949 and the Immorality Act, Act No 21 of 1950 made marriage and any sort of sexual relation illegal across the races, creating legal boundaries.
- The Population Registration Act, Act No 30 of 1950 required every South African to be racially classified in one of the 3 categories: White, Black or Coloured. The criteria used to determine the qualification was based on appearance, social acceptance and descent.
- The Group Areas Act, Act No 41 of 1950 forced segregation between races through designating areas where different population groups could own property, reside and work.
- The Bantu Authorities Act, Act No 68 of 1951 led to the set up of homelands, (black ethnic governments), to push Black people out of urban areas and into these designated areas, which tend to be rural areas. Inhabitants of these homelands lost their South African citizenship and all political rights .
- 1951-Act No 27, Bantu Building Workers Act prevented black Africans from performing skilled work in any areas except those designated for black occupation.
- 1951-Act No 46, Separate Representation of Voters Act led to the removal of the Coloured's voting right.
- 1951-Act No 52, Prevention of Illegal Squatting Act forcefully removed squatting communities, and gave the Minister of Native Affairs the ability to remove blacks from public and privately owned land and to place them in resettlement camps.
- 1952-Natives Laws Amendment Act limited the number of blacks who could permanently reside in towns to those who had been born in a town and had lived/ been employed there continuously for at least 15 years.
- 1952-Act No 67, Natives (Abolition of Passes and Co-ordination of Documents) Act forced black people, including women, to carry identification at all times. Africans could not go to an urban area without a permit granted by the local authorities.
- 1953-Native Labour (Settlement of Disputes) Act prohibited black people to go on strike.
- 1953-Act No 47, Bantu Education Act established a curriculum suited to the "nature and requirements of the black people". This law ensured that black Africans would only be able to be engaged in jobs designated for them, and provided skills to serve their own people in the homelands or to work in labouring jobs under Whites.
- 1953-Act No 49, Reservation of Separate Amenities Act enacted segregation in all public areas; there were separate amenities such as toilets, parks and beaches for different racial groups.
- Act No 64, Natives (Prohibition of Interdicts) Act denied black people the ability to appeal or apply for protection against governmental laws in courts.
- 1958-Act No 38, The Natives Taxation and Development Act required every male African of the age 18 years (21 years for other groups) and over to pay a higher annual tax. It extended to women and increased for men earning over £180 per annum the next year. Africans were imprisoned for non-payment of tax, unlike other races. In 1955, 177,890 Africans were arrested and brought to court for failure to pay tax.
- 1959-Act 45, Extension of University Education Act prevented black students from attending white Universities.
- 1959 -Act No 46, Promotion of Bantu Self-Government Act classified black people into eight ethnic groups and a corresponding homeland. Each homeland would govern itself without white intervention.
- 1970-Bantu Homelands Citizens Act removed black South African citizenship and the right to work or live in South Africa. It required all black people to become a citizen of a homeland designated for his/her ethnic group.
During the mid-1980s, the apartheid system was increasingly challenged and began to weaken. This resistance came from the international community, as well as from the South African people.
The issue of racial discrimination during apartheid was a source of concern for the United Nations (UN) since 1946. However, little was done as it was thought that apartheid was an internal affair of South Africa, thus it did not come under the scope of the UN. With the Sharpeville massacre in 1960, the international view of apartheid changed and began to criticise South Africa. In 1977, compulsory arms embargoes were imposed and the year 1982 was declared the International Year of Mobilisation for Sanctions against South Africa. Boycotts were also made in various sectors brought not only a negative impact on the economy, but also disrupted everyday life. South Africa was thus increasingly isolated. To alleviate isolation, BJ Vorster, the Prime Minister from 1966-1978, introduced the “outward looking policy”. (South African History Online, n.d.)
Organisations such as the African National Congress (ANC) and Pan Africanist Congress (PAC) were formed against apartheid. They sought to bring about a change through peaceful means like civil disobedience campaigns; however, they turned to armed resistance after the Sharpeville Massacre. Military wings of the ANC and PAC, the MK and Popo were formed respectively which carried out violence and sabotage. With the ban of ANC and PAC in 1960, a student initiated movement, the Black consciousness (BC), started in 1969. These black resistance groups contributed to some of the key events of Apartheid, as discussed in a later section. (Apartheid Museum, 2008).
The increasing resistance towards the system led to the altering of the Constitution in the early 1980s, so as to appease some sectors of the non-white population. The 1983 Constitution allowed limited parliamentary representation (that was dictated by the predominantly white government) for the Indian and Coloured communities. The parliament consisted of three houses:
- House of Assembly (178 white members)
- House of Representatives (85 Coloured members) and
- House of Delegates (45 Indian members).
Some discriminatory policies were repealed during this period, such as the Mixed Marriages Act and the Population Registration Act. Also, in 1990, liberation organisations including the African National Congress (ANC) were unbanned and prisoners were released. Negotiations began between the ANC and NP for a new Constitution and the first democratic elections.
Key Events in Apartheid
The Treason Trial--- 1956 to 1961
The government in South Africa arrested 156 people (105 Blacks, 21 Indians, 23 Whites, and 7 Coloured) consisting of the executive of African National Congress, Congress of Democrats, South African Indian Congress, Coloured People’s Congress and the South African Congress of Trade Unions. 144 people were arrested by the police on 5 December 1956. Some of these people included Chief Albert Luthuli and Nelson Mandela. 12 other people were arrested in the following week. One of them was Walter Sisulu. They were charged for "high treason and a countrywide conspiracy to use violence to overthrow the present government and replace it with a communist state."
One of the two charges under the Suppression of Communism was dropped. However, 30 people who were members of the ANC was accused of a new indictment. Nelson Mandela late suggests in his biography that the Treason Trial verdict brought the conflict with the anti-Apartheid organizations to a whole new level. (Boddy-Evans, 2006).
Women’s Anti-Pass Law Campaigns---- 9 August 1956
South African government amended previous laws, requiring all black people from all provinces who are older than 16 years old to always carry a “reference book”. In order for it to be renewed each month, the employer’s signature was required. Authorisation and certification of tax payments were only done at certain areas.
On 9 August 1956, over 20000 women of all races took part in a march through the streets of Pretoria to the Union Buildings. They wanted to hand over a petition to JG Strijdom. (Boddy-Evans, n.d.)
Sharpeville Massacre --- 21 March 1960
The Pan Africanist Congress (PAC) called for people around Sharpeville to demonstrate against carrying passes for Blacks. They gathered at the Sharpeville police station, sang freedom songs and surrendered themselves for not carrying passes. 300 policemen opened fire at the crowd of around 5000 people, leaving 69 dead and 180 people wounded. (South African History Online, n.d.)
Soweto Student Uprising ---- 16 June 1976
The rise of the Black Consciousness Movement (BCM) and the formation of South African Students Organisation (SASO) raised many students’ political consciousness and prompted anti- Apartheid sentiments in the student community. (South African History Online, n.d.).The Soweto Students Representative Council’s Action committee, with the support of BCM, mobilized 3000 to 10000 students. They took part in a peaceful march to protest against the government’s directive in making the language of the Afrikaans and English compulsory in 1974 as a medium of instruction in school.
They were confronted with heavily armed police. Teargas was fired, followed by live ammunition on the students involved. Over 360 blacks were killed. (libcom.org, 2006). Soon, there was a widespread revolt which evolved swiftly into an uprising against the government. There was also international revulsion at the brutality of South Africa. New recruits joined liberation movements against Apartheid. (Hamilton, 2006).
Bombings of ANC headquarters ----- 12 March 1982
Crossroads------ February to June 1985
On 18 February 1985, a riot occurred at Crossroads. 8 killed while a few hundred were injured. Between 25 May and 12 June 1986, estimates of 60000 people were forced out from their homes at Crossroads. (Boddy-Evans, n.d.)
The Treason Trial--- 1956 to 1961
The government in South Africa arrested 156 people (105 Blacks, 21 Indians, 23 Whites, and 7 Coloured) consisting of the executive of African National Congress, Congress of Democrats, South African Indian Congress, Coloured People’s Congress and the South African Congress of Trade Unions. 144 people were arrested by the police on 5 December 1956. Some of these people included Chief Albert Luthuli and Nelson Mandela. 12 other people were arrested in the following week. One of them was Walter Sisulu. They were charged for "high treason and a countrywide conspiracy to use violence to overthrow the present government and replace it with a communist state."
One of the two charges under the Suppression of Communism was dropped. However, 30 people who were members of the ANC was accused of a new indictment. Nelson Mandela late suggests in his biography that the Treason Trial verdict brought the conflict with the anti-Apartheid organizations to a whole new level. (Boddy-Evans, 2006).
Women’s Anti-Pass Law Campaigns---- 9 August 1956
South African government amended previous laws, requiring all black people from all provinces who are older than 16 years old to always carry a “reference book”. In order for it to be renewed each month, the employer’s signature was required. Authorisation and certification of tax payments were only done at certain areas.
On 9 August 1956, over 20000 women of all races took part in a march through the streets of Pretoria to the Union Buildings. They wanted to hand over a petition to JG Strijdom. (Boddy-Evans, n.d.)
Sharpeville Massacre --- 21 March 1960
The Pan Africanist Congress (PAC) called for people around Sharpeville to demonstrate against carrying passes for Blacks. They gathered at the Sharpeville police station, sang freedom songs and surrendered themselves for not carrying passes. 300 policemen opened fire at the crowd of around 5000 people, leaving 69 dead and 180 people wounded. (South African History Online, n.d.)
Soweto Student Uprising ---- 16 June 1976
The rise of the Black Consciousness Movement (BCM) and the formation of South African Students Organisation (SASO) raised many students’ political consciousness and prompted anti- Apartheid sentiments in the student community. (South African History Online, n.d.).The Soweto Students Representative Council’s Action committee, with the support of BCM, mobilized 3000 to 10000 students. They took part in a peaceful march to protest against the government’s directive in making the language of the Afrikaans and English compulsory in 1974 as a medium of instruction in school.
They were confronted with heavily armed police. Teargas was fired, followed by live ammunition on the students involved. Over 360 blacks were killed. (libcom.org, 2006). Soon, there was a widespread revolt which evolved swiftly into an uprising against the government. There was also international revulsion at the brutality of South Africa. New recruits joined liberation movements against Apartheid. (Hamilton, 2006).
Bombings of ANC headquarters ----- 12 March 1982
Crossroads------ February to June 1985
On 18 February 1985, a riot occurred at Crossroads. 8 killed while a few hundred were injured. Between 25 May and 12 June 1986, estimates of 60000 people were forced out from their homes at Crossroads. (Boddy-Evans, n.d.)